Therapeutic interventions Essay Example

Therapeutic interventions Essay Definition Therapeutic Interventions encompass not Just the nursing profession but each nurse as an Individual. Whether realized or not, every Intervention a nurse Implements Is therapeutic. Sometimes these Interventions can have a good or bad effect. Through research and continuing knowledge, a nurse can learn or Improve these Interventions so that the highest quality of care Is given to each and every patient. Therapeutic interventions can be defined as actions or behaviors involving clients that is scientifically evidence-based and caring to assist patients in meeting his or ere needs and accomplishing optimal outcomes (PAN handbook). Through therapeutic communication, a nurse can set the tone for a safe and caring environment. Beginning a trusting relationship will provide the patient with comfort, allowing them to heal and to feel free to express his or her feelings. For example, deprivation of meaningful relationships and colonization have detrimental effects on the physical and psychosocial wellbeing of older clients. Having a trusting relationship with nurses, alleviates feelings of loneliness and helplessness (Brownie, S. , Horsemanship, L. 2012). Implementing safe and accurate care that Is evidence-based Is an Important therapeutic intervention. The five steps of implementation are imperative to avoid unwanted errors from occurring to patients. The five steps include asking a question, finding the best evidence, evaluation of the evidence, applying the information with experience and patient values, and evaluation of outcomes. These five steps always surround the patients values and beliefs. It is also important for the nurse to collaborate with fellow coworkers when help is needed. Sometimes other nurses ay have an answer that could solve a current problem (Johnson, 2008). To provide optimal care to patients, nurses must be aware of cultural diversity. We will write a custom essay sample on Therapeutic interventions specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Therapeutic interventions specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Therapeutic interventions specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Every culture has their own values and beliefs, Including the care that each culturally diverse patient receives. For example, a female Arabic client will not make eye contact or speak with male nurses or physicians. This Is not the clients way of being rude, it is her cultural beliefs and the nurse must be aware of this. It is crucial for the nurse to be aware of these cultural differences before providing care so care is not affected (Taylor, C.. Allis, C. , Lemon, P. , Lynn, P.. 2011). It is important to prioritize care based on the patients needs. For example, a postoperative patient needs care of an incision. The nurse knows that care of this incision and pain control are top priority. When the patient starts to have trouble breathing and goes into respiratory distress, the nurse needs to be aware that difficulty breathing takes higher priority over an incision. Support Is a crucial therapeutic intervention. When It comes to end of life decisions, families Like to be Involved. The nurse should physically and mentally purport the family, as well as the patient, through this difficult time. After the death of a patient, the nurse could ask the family If they would Like to spend time with the patient to assist them in coping. The nurse could also ask the family if they would therapeutic and/or as a way to care for a loved one, one last time (Assignations, D. D. , 2013). There are many types of therapeutic interventions. Pharmacological interventions involve the use of medications to prevent and/or treat disease and relieve pain. It is important to monitor peak and trough levels of medications administered. This is to verify that all medications are therapeutic and not causing damage or harm to the body (Lilly, L. L. , Collins, S. R. , 2014). Non-pharmacological interventions include music therapy, exercise, art, and dance. These interventions are also referred to as psychosocial interventions. These therapies are used to improve self-esteem and self-achievement, as well as, an alternative method of relieving pain without the use of medications. On occasion, these interventions have helped patients to talk about repressed feelings they may be experiencing (Hayes, N. , 2003). A nurse could use hermeneutic touch (healing touch) as an intervention. A massage is a great way to rebalanced the patients energy field or relieve pain without pharmacological intervention. A healing touch positively affects the patient physically, mentally, and emotionally (Lilly, L. L. , Collins, S. R. , 2014). This author defines therapeutic interventions as a way to help heal in a manner that is patient-centered. Helping a patient to heal does not always mean medical interventions. Sometimes, it is being a support person for a patient to express their feelings or an advocate when the patient cant speak. Therapeutic interventions involve helping the patient whether it is though administering medications or giving a massage. In Conclusion, therapeutic interventions are an important aspect of the nursing profession. It involves more than Just administering medications to help a patient heal. Helping the patient to self-actualization, love and belonging, and self-esteem are a huge step in the healing process. A depressed patient may take longer to heal, where as a patient who is content and happy will heal faster. It should be a priority of the nurse to make sure that each and every patient receives optimal therapeutic are. Explanation For this explanation, I chose my presentation on encyclopedias. Encyclopedias are a classification of drugs that have their own specific way of killing bacteria that cause infection, more specifically gram negative bacteria. Encyclopedias are a form of a therapeutic intervention and can be used in combination with non-pharmacological interventions. These interventions might include music therapy, acupuncture, deep massage, etc Encyclopedias are an important therapeutic intervention. Patients may have a serious infection that requires an antibiotic. Through the administration of this class of medication, the patient is able to begin the healing process from their infection. In addition to this broad intervention, there are several non-pharmacological therapeutic interventions that can be used along with encyclopedias treatment. A massage would be great for patients experiencing muscle cramps caused by the reduction of potassium in the body or for pain experienced from an infection. Another intervention could be acupuncture. Acupuncture is an intervention that allows body mind to relax and heal. It has been useful for treating nausea, vomiting, main and ailment. Through distraction a patient can take their mind off of the things that are bothering them. Increasing fluids is also an important therapeutic intervention with the administration of encyclopedias. Through increasing fluids the body can reheated itself. Encyclopedias are known to cause problems with the kidneys and by advising the patient to increase their fluid intake, the body can maintain hydration and allow for proper kidney function. Without proper kidney function, the body is unable to remove the medication itself; therefore, potentially causing toxicity and harm to the body. In conclusion, encyclopedias are an important therapeutic intervention. Without the use of antibiotics patients could become seriously ill with infection or face the possibility of death. While this antibiotic drug class is a therapeutic intervention towards the treatment of infection, there are additional therapeutic interventions that must be followed to keep patients from unwanted and adverse effects. Through my research, as a future nurse, I am able to provide the proper education about encyclopedias and to implement the proper interventions needed to make this therapy a success.

Complete Plan When Should I Start Studying for the SAT

Complete Plan When Should I Start Studying for the SAT SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Before you start thinking about which colleges to apply to or what you want to study in college, you need to take the right steps to get there. For many students, this means taking the SAT. You may be wondering when to start studying for the SAT. If you start too late, you won't get the highest score you're capable of. But if you start too early, you might struggle because you haven’t learned all the necessary content yet, plus you could forget things by the time the test rolls around. So what’s the perfect time to start studying? We will briefly explain the content you need to know for the SAT, and then give you a recommended plan based on your college goals. When Should You Take the SAT? Before you decide when to start studying for the SAT, first you need to figure out when you'll take the SAT. Given the content on the SAT and the college application timeline,you should aim to take your first SAT in the fall of junior year.This gives you time to retake the SAT in spring if you want a higher score. Then if you score well, senior year will be freed up for your college applications. Also,aiming for junior fall means your SAT studying won’t compete with AP or IB exams. You'll have to decide between a more intense study schedule (like ten hours a week for two months) or a more gradual one (four hours a week for five months). Either method can work and help you make huge score increases, so choosing a plan will just depend on your schedule and study style. When Should You Start Studying for the SAT? Working backwards from junior fall, it’s good tostart studying at some point during sophomore yearfor a longer, less intense plan or the summer after sophomore year for a more intense plan. Taking the PSAT (Practice SAT) orPSAT 10as a sophomore is a great way to get introduced to the test in a completely no-pressure situation –you aren’t qualified for the National Merit competitionuntil junior year, so you can just get an introduction to the test and get a sense of where you stand with your current skills. If your school doesn’t offer the PSAT or it's too late to sign up, you can also takea free SAT practice test online. Just remember to time yourself carefully to simulate actual test conditions! By taking a practice SAT or a PSAT, you'll have a baseline score which you'll use to determine how many hours you need to study for the SAT further on in this article. Where Do You Want to Go to College? The length and intensity of your study plan will strongly depend on your college goals. If you’re looking to go a decent in-state school, there is less pressure riding on your score than if you are set on the likes of Harvard, Stanford, or MIT. Use the three plans below to help you come up with your SAT target score. Ivy League/Highly Selective School SAT Study Plan If you’re aiming for highly selective colleges like the Ivy Leagues, Stanford, and MIT,getting a high SAT score is extremely important.Definitely plan to take the PSAT as a sophomore to see how you are shaping up to do on the SAT. You should consider taking a full SAT practice test as well, since the PSAT doesn’t include all of the content tested on the real SAT. You'll need an excellent SAT score to get into MIT! Once you have a starting score, decide whether you want to study during sophomore year at a more gradual pace or use the summer before junior year for a more intensive study schedule. Keep in mindyour target SAT score should be1500 or higher if you are aiming for top schools.This puts you in the higher end of admitted student score ranges for these schools, and thus improves your odds of admission. Next, take the SAT for the first time during junior fall. If you fall short of a 1500 (or whatever you set your target score at), plan to retake the SAT in junior spring and continue to study. (Learn more aboutwhy getting above 1500 is so important for top schools.) Selective School SAT Study Plan We are defining selective schools as schools that take less than half of admitted applicants (in other words, their admissions rate is below 50%). These schools are tough to get into, but not as competitive as the Ivy Leagues, Stanford, and MIT. For selective schools, we also recommend either taking the PSAT as a sophomore to gauge your base score or taking a practice SAT. Next,look up the SAT score ranges for your target colleges.You can find any college’s SAT score ranges by searching for â€Å"[Name of College/University] SAT scores PrepScholar†. Set your target SAT score based on the most selective school you are applying to.This way, if you make your score goal, you can comfortably apply to every school on your list. For example, if the most competitive school you’re applying to is New York University, you shouldset your SAT target score at 1350– the average score of admitted students. Take the SAT junior fall. If you are short of your goal, you can retake it in junior spring. Less Selective School SAT Study Plan Less selective schools are schools that admit more than half of their applicants. This is often the case with large public universities or lesser-known small colleges. Your SAT score here is important, but it likely won’t need to be sky high. Take the PSAT as a sophomore to gauge your starting point. If you seriously struggle – get any score below a 1000 – start doing some prep sophomore year so you can get at least an above-average SAT score. Otherwise, you can wait until after sophomore year is over and prep during the summer.Look up the SAT score ranges at your target schoolsand set your target score based on those ranges. For example, if you’re hoping to get into the University of Kentucky,you should set your target SAT score at 30for the new SAT, which is their average SAT score for admission. Take the SAT junior fall.If your score is way lower than your state school’s ranges, you can retake the test in junior spring. Otherwise, focus on keeping your grades up and devoting time to your extracurriculars. Want to learn more about the SAT but tired of reading blog articles? Then you'll love our free, SAT prep livestreams. Designed and led by PrepScholar SAT experts, these live video events are a great resource for students and parents looking to learn more about the SAT and SAT prep. Click on the button below to register for one of our livestreams today! How Much Do You Need to Study for the SAT? How many hours you need to study for the SAT depends onhow large a point improvement you want to make.You'll determine this by figuring out the difference between the baseline score you got from your practice test and your target score for the schools you want to get accepted to. You can use the following hours per point improvement recommendations as a starting point. 0-50 SAT Composite Point Improvement: 10 hours50-100 Point Improvement: 20 hours100-200 Point Improvement: 40 hours200-300 Point Improvement: 80 hours300-500 Point Improvement: 150 hours+ (For more on scoring, see our post on how the SAT is scored.) As an example,if you get a 1200 on your practice test, and your target score is 1500, then you have 300 points to improve, meaning you should put in about 80 hours.You could space this out (say, three hours per week for six months) or study intensely over the summer (16 hours per week for five weeks). This guideline is just a starting point and exactly how much time you'll need to spend studying heavily depends on how much you've prepped before, your starting skill level, and your ability to learn new concepts quickly. If you're looking for a small improvement, like 50 points,you can do this by optimizing your testing strategy and possibly even just byretaking the test.But for serious improvements, 200 points and above, you likely still need to learn a lot of fundamental content. Little tricks and strategies won't be enough to raise your score - you will need to learn actual material and attack your test-taking weaknesses. Think about it this way: the SAT tests academic skills that you've been learning your entire life, like how numbers work and how to read.As a high school junior, you've completed over 20,000 hours of schooling and homework.An improvement of 200 or more points requires a serious retooling of your knowledge and skills. If you can't devote at least 80 hours to prepping, you will find it very difficult to make huge score improvements. What’s Tested on the SAT? In this section we go over the major topics you'll be tested on in each of three main sections of the SAT. You can use this information to figure out what material you already know and what you still need to learn for the SAT. Reading All questions on the SAT Reading section are based on passages with set topics. There will be one US or world literature passage, two history/social science passages, and two science passages. You will need to be able to read and understand the passages and then answer multiple-choice questions about them. The literature passage can use especially complex language, so you have to be able to break down complex language in a short amount of time five passages (and 52 questions) in 65 minutes, to be precise. The questions require you to define vocabulary based on context, use evidence, understand logical arguments, and even understand some basic scientific concepts. There are even a few questions about data analysis basically, you'll have to break down a graph or table. Finally, there are two-part "evidence support" questions: the first question asks you something about the passage, and the second question asks you where exactly in the passage you find your evidence. Check out this example to see what an evidence support question looks like: Via College Board's Test Specifications for the Redesigned SAT. Doing well on SAT Reading will require you to read difficult passages from different subjects quickly and break down their meaning. Essentially, the more advanced of a reader you are, and the more English, science, and social science classes you have taken, the better prepared you will be for this section. Having two years of high school English completed by the time you take the test junior fall will give you a sufficient base to study with. High school English classes both broaden your vocabulary and teach you to approach increasingly difficult texts. In addition, social science or science classes you take will further prepare you to tackle the social science and science passages. Any advanced reading you can do outside of class – either in terms of books or magazines like The New Yorker or Wired – will also be helpful. Read a detailed breakdown of the Reading section here. Math SAT Math tests the following math concepts: Numbers and Operations Algebra and Functions Geometry and Measurement Data Analysis, Statistics, and Probability Trigonometry (You can read a full breakdown of how these concepts are tested here.) This means that once you have taken Geometry and Algebra II, you will have learned all the content you need for the SAT Math section. You don’t need to worry about pre-calculus or calculus concepts on the SAT. However, SAT Math will require you to work through story problems and real-life scenarios, with some science and social science concepts thrown in as well. This is why extra studying for the SAT Math section is very important. Definitely don’t attempt the SAT or a serious study regimen before you’ve completed geometry. But most students should be ready to tackle the SAT with the math they have learned before junior year. (If you want to read more about what it would be like to take the SAT without geometry, see our post on the subject.) Writing and Language The writing section of the SAT tests your ability to understand and apply grammar rules and English language conventions to both sentences and paragraphs. For this section, you will be asked to improve sentences (in terms of grammar and structure), identify errors in sentences (grammar and usage) and to improve paragraphs (organization and revision), all in the context of long passages. You can read a complete breakdown of this section here. The more familiar you are with English grammar rules, the easier this section will be for you. Additionally, the more experience you have writing and revising, the easier it will be for you to tackle these questions quickly. Again, two years of high school English should be sufficient preparation for most students, but reading and writing outside of class will help you get ahead. Also, you should definitely take the time to study the grammar rules that will be tested on SAT Writing. The Bottom Line: When to Start Studying for the SAT We recommend you take the PSAT (or an SAT practice test) sophomore year to get your base SAT score. Then, figure out your target SAT score based on the most competitive school you’re applying to. Finally, begin to study either during sophomore year or the following summer, and take the SAT junior fall. The intensity of your studying will vary by how selective the schools you want to get into are, your starting score, and how much you need to improve. But if you start during sophomore year by taking the PSAT or an SAT practice test, you will be on track to get your best possible score during junior year. This will free up your senior year for college applications. What’s Next? Are you aiming for a perfect or close-to-perfect score? Get tips from our resident full-scorer about how to get there. Learn what a good/bad/excellent SAT score is, and read about good scores for the Ivy League. Curious about how the PSAT qualifies you for the National Merit Competition? Learn how to qualify here. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points?We have the industry's leading SAT prep program. Built by Harvard grads and SAT full scorers, the program learns your strengths and weaknesses through advanced statistics, then customizes your prep program to you so you get the most effective prep possible. Check out our 5-day free trial today:

The Value of Information Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Value of Information - Assignment Example Managers are mostly faced by a were situation where they have to make decisions instantly; hence, it is mostly the case that decision making under uncertainty is mostly the case for decision makers. Imperfect information can largely be ignored in repetitive trials with small effects resulting from errors because the impacts are small, and the result from errors showing that the information could be the waist not for the errors. The other reason for ignoring imperfect information is the inability of the information to have much impact on the probabilities or chances for making the correct decision; hence, they can largely be ignored. The need for first-time success increases the demand for information as a measure of ensuring uncertainty is reduced in making the decision increasing the chances of making the correct decision. Availability of information for decision-making increases the possibility of first-time success by ensuring the decision maker knows the odds between making the correct and wrong decision. To augment the chances of first-time success, the demand for information increases to ensure the ability to make correct decision increases. The demand for information incr eases in first-time success owing to lack of previous data and the high uncertainty associated with first-time success owing to no proven record of accomplishment for decision making. In one-shot large potential loss situations, the information that is commonly available is the payoffs that the decision maker expects to get from a given decision from the highest to the lowest pay off accompanying any.

12 Steps meetings for Narcotic Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

12 Steps meetings for Narcotic - Assignment Example Narcotics Anonymous is a society or association of recovering addicts who possess the desire to stay clean. At the meeting, DSM IV diagnoses for Axis I included persons recovering from an exacerbation of schizophrenia, a major depressive episode or a flare-up of panic disorder. The meeting was held in a tent behind a church. The attendees included three women and eight men, all of whom were recovering addicts. Individually, I felt a little anxious given this was my first meeting and I was not sure of was to expect, except for the information I had gathered from my friends about the program. At the venue, there were people seated: some in groups talking while some seated quietly alone. I decided to take a seat close to the door just in case I wanted to quickly leave the room. The attendees sat in a circle of chairs and one woman, who I later learn was the chairperson of the meeting for the day, sat at the center of the circle. The chairperson asked everyone to join in reciting the ser enity prayer, and then inquired whether there were any first timers or newcomers, in attendance who were willing to introduce themselves. Handfuls raised their hands, and were each offered an opportunity to say their names. 12-step meetings are founded on the principle confidentiality; the group has the word â€Å"anonymous† in the title. ... During the meeting, the chairperson repeated a common 12 step saying to remind everyone of the significance of anonymity and confidentiality. The chairperson declared the step that was to be discussed, after which she read the step chapter from the book, "Twelve Steps and Twelve Traditions,†. She then asked whether anybody had any experience, hope and strength with regard to the step, which they felt like sharing. This particular section was to me the most interesting part of the meeting. It was amazing to see people share their experiences with narcotics and relating it to the step as some appeared to follow my own personal experiences. As the meeting continued, attendees started talking, each beginning by introducing themselves as "Hello, I am (first name) and I'm an addict". At the end of their talks, everybody in the room would thank them then the next person would begin speaking. After everyone had shared, the chairperson asked whether there was any announcements and then announced that it was time to say the serenity prayer. The defense mechanisms used by some of the member at the meeting included denial and reluctance to admit addiction Everyone in the meeting put their arms around one another and recited the Serenity Prayer. This marked the end of the meeting. Sharing at the meeting benefits the individuals as it gives them a chance to release tension and unburden themselves. Other participants are able to give a different viewpoint on what has been shared, making them feel more of important contributors to the meeting. The law provides for involuntary commitment for substance abusers if (1) he is dangerous to himself, herself, or others when under the influence or (2) seriously disabled. The form used to appeal that a substance

Oil and Gas Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Oil and Gas Management - Essay Example This is achieved mainly through: Local content participation can be measured based on a given project, an associate of the project or based on the country as a whole. Local content can be defined as the value added to a host nation via the activities generated by gas and oil production (Wise and Shtylla 2007). Many analysts are of the view that the effort and time spent developing local content participation strategies can be of commercial and social benefits which can generate enormous economic growth as well as have a huge share in sustainable development (Petro 2010). Oil and gas companies are different and hence it is almost impossible to achieve a successful local content participation program. To achieve a successful local content participation program, a number of key factors are to be involved. They include: A host of nations have made considerable progress in the implementation and advancement of local content participation but the issue still remains of concern. As a result, more efforts and time are necessary to realise an improvement in the local content participation practices. It is estimated that 20 years from now, 90% of hydrocarbon production will be a product of developing nations (Baker 2007). This list of developing nations that extract gas and oil have introduced the local content participation requirements into the regulatory frameworks that govern the developments of natural resources. Due to the increasing importance for the local content participation, Statoil (2008) argues that most companies view local content concept as a strategic issue with direct impacts on vital business operations, for instance, procurement and business development. In response, many developing countries are coming up with innovative tools and strategies that are directed towards meeting the requirements set by local content policies as well as contribute to

Impact of Globalisation and FDI on Chinese Labour Law

Impact of Globalisation and FDI on Chinese Labour Law The Impact of Globalisation and Foreign Direct Investment on Chinese Labour Law and Policy Appetiser There I was, situated in Shanghai as part of a new student program with the University of Sydney. I drew back the curtains of my hotel suite on the thirtieth floor and beheld the Shanghai skyline. I had been told that not a single building was more than ten years old and I believed it. Before me stood a futuristic New York with sturdy glass skyscrapers towering above the masses as they went about their day on rudimentary cycles. I felt Caucasian and large in a world of physically short men and women whose world was running away from all that they had been and understood. I almost felt as though I were more at home in this strange, capital leviathan of structures, fitting precariously at the doorstep of wealth and clutching like a lost child to the parent sleeve of communism. Over the next four weeks I would study the impact of globalisation on China’s economical, political and social traditions. I was to tear away at the old fabric of a people’s country and in my own way seemingly justify intellectual property, uneven distributions of wealth and a drive for profits in this world that was steadily before my eyes, turning from red to green. Those students who had come before me had ignored the sheer impact of such factors on this socialist world. They focused merely on the steps that would need to be taken to eradicate bad habits that were hostile to Foreign Direct Investment. Yet the irony was that each and every one of us would venture into the markets and pick up accurate knock-offs of Prada and Hugo Boss for a fraction of their genuine retail value. I did however choose to focus on the people that remained behind the curtain of global market triumph. These were men and women whose lives were left uncertain in a country now becoming more a nd more devoid of lifetime guaranteed jobs. I wondered at their predicament, I focused on thinking of the changes to their lives and hoped that they would understand that it was all for the best. Nicola L Tysoe Introduction The clear combination of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) welcoming policies and a relatively low cost economy spells a formula which, with the addition of cheap labour will become an area that foreign investors are only too happy to target by means of outsourcing the bulk of their services to the People’s Republic of China (PRC). China is rapidly growing in strength into a super power of the future and it becomes necessary to take a good look at the anatomy of this prosperous period of growth. This paper will begin in Chapter one by focusing on the substantive legal reforms that have been brought on by China’s bid for a more FDI welcoming environment. This will begin by giving an historical account of the social factors that encouraged reform Chapter two will then provide substantive analysis of the Chinese Labour Law of 1994, the Trade Union Law of 2001, Occupational Health and Safety and social security. In theory, and in a perfect world, the rapid race to FDI impacts on the economy of the target State in much the same manner as the Marshall plan that brightened the horizon for West Germany after the Second World War. Analysts would be forgiven for assuming that it is only a matter of time before the standard of living and sophistication of infrastructure of China begins to reach levels that are on a par with Western markets. This does after all go hand in hand with development in many infrastructures such as pensions and insurance, banking, intellectual property enforcement, taxation and corporate governance. It is also assumed that the process of acceleration will become exponential due to China’s recent accession to the WTO. In March of 2003, three major institutions came together to convene the International Conference on the Labour Reform: Employment, Workers’ Rights and Labour Law in China. These were; the International Institute’s Advanced Study Centre (ASC), the Institute of Labour and Industrial Relations and the Centre for Chinese Studies. In addition delegates from the World Bank, Amnesty International and University of Michigan faculty members and event co-sponsors[1]. The central point of discussion for this two-day conference was to discuss changes to the labour market of China as a result of over twenty years of rapid economic reform. Interestingly, this conference went beyond the mere analysis of new laws and looked more closely into the socially impacting factors of implementation in order to illustrate the true reality for workers in post economic reform China. This conference illustrated the clear need for a social analysis of labour in addition to the more procedural concepts of law reform and economic policy changes. Chapter three will therefore provide the contrasting reality for workers and give an account of China’s weak implementation policies as well as the emergence of inequality of worker treatment due to geography, gender and, surprisingly, the corporate entity of the employer. Finally, no social, financial and economic analysis of labour in post economic reform China would be complete without also analysing the issue of China as a global influence that may be set to create an international benchmark for attracting FDI. Chapter three will explore this point with reference to the existing impact of China on the global investment scene. The question asked will be whether the international community has cause for concern given China’s poor implementation strategy against promising legal harmonisation such as recent accession to the WTO. This will raise the worrying issue of risking a trend within workers rights that will witness a ‘race to the bottom’. Chapter One: Analysis – Social-Economic reform in China AHistorical Changes to Labour The political reason for economic reform in China was derived from unrest between 1966 and 1976[2] in which there had been a loss of confidence in the communist regime. By instigating reforms towards the creation of an open market, the Government hoped to establish popularity in an ever more dissatisfied population[3]. In addition to politics, China instigated reforms as a result of practical necessity and clearly prioritised economic welfare over purely communist ideals. This revolutionary compromise saved the regime and is exclusively responsible for China’s preservation of communism to this day[4]. China initially instigated its experiment with private ownership in 1978 but prior to this time annual growth rates in industrial production were measured at an average of 9.59 percent between 1952 and 1978[5]. In addition, industrial capital assets increased by an average of 11.08 percent and this contrasted with employment growth of a mere 5.98 percent per annum[6] and a wage rate increase of a mere 0.1 percent! The increased labour was resourced from rural regions as prospects in these areas diminished and young people undertook economic migration in search of better wage rates in China’s urban centres. This displacement of the population placed pressure on the maintenance of food supplies into the cities and called upon increased spending on housing and public services. The resulting reduction in rural labour resources also resulted in a decrease in agricultural output thereby increasing food costs across the country. The response from the Chinese government was to prioritise on the development of industries that yielded the highest revenue and these were centred in the urban districts[7]. Unfortunately this resulted in a destabilization of equilibrium of employment availability between the urban and rural regions thereby resulting in increased unemployment in the latter by the late 1970s. The result was an increased migration of rural populations seeking work and numbered a staggering, albeit modest estimate of 5 to 6 million Chinese between the years of 1978 and 1980[8]. The Government was effectively faced with a crisis as the traditional communist solution to simply create jobs within state owned sectors proved to be wholly unrealistic given the scale of the problem. Clearly relaxation of FDI restrictions, coupled with the attractive incentive of low cost labour would open the door to investment from the West. It was also conceded by the Chinese Government that this economic reform would create widespread modernisation of existing infrastructures and provide a breeding ground for technological advancement, as well as facilitate greater responses to consumer demands[9]. The Chinese Government regarded the allowance for economic growth within a private sector to tackle the problem of unemployment and treated the venture as an experiment. However these areas of private growth had originally formed part of the old communist infrastructure and this alleviated the brunt of political connotation for creation of a thriving private sector within a socialist regime. As is typical for developing States, China utilised the system of allocating Special Economic Zones (SEZs) for the purpose of concentrating FDI into specific geographic locations. Allocation of the location of these zones began in the early 1980s and there are now five SEZs in the provinces of Guangdong, Fujian, Hainan Hunchun and Pudong (Shanghai). To this day these zones provide huge tax incentives in the early days of development and can typically entail tax exemption during the first years of business until profits are declared[10]. Thereafter a ‘Tax Clock’ is counted whereby corporations tax would fall payable after the second year of profitable business[11]. Tax is then chargeable at a discount until the end of year five[12]. This method does however create vast inequalities of economic wealth between SEZ and non SEZ regions. This will be discussed further in chapter insert. B.Direct Implications for Labour 1986 saw China make the bold step of awarding further preferential treatment to businesses within the SEZs that had been established with overseas capital. Under new regulations these firms were permitted to independently determine the size of their own workforce and were given carte blanche discretion on setting wages. In addition, the Government acknowledged the need for entrepreneurs and hence, increased freedoms for domestic companies. Earlier in 1978 China had therefore given leave for small, privately run businesses to be given permission to exist and grow. In 1981 the State Council set up regulations governing the business ventures of entrepreneurs. By 1988 large domestic companies had been awarded the same workforce level control and profit distribution freedoms as FDI funded companies[13]. Chapter Two: Understanding Labour Law in Post Reform China AUnderstanding Chinese Labour Market Structure In order to fully appreciate the effects labour reforms that were brought on by FDI and globalisation it is essential to fully understand the current labour market structure. There are now four types of in addition to privately owned companies and urban collectives. Firstly there are State owned enterprises which, while resembling a capitalist entity by being profit-driven, remains under the control of the People’s Republic of China (PRC)[14]. These enterprises form the historic legacy of the pre-reform days of centralised State planning. This type of entity is used for the implementation of public policy ventures. However, since these reforms have taken hold, there has been a need for wages to be competitively set in accordance with market trends thereby facilitating external, capitalist behaviour when dealing with human resources. Secondly township and village enterprises (TVEs) consist of groups of firms that are inextricably and contractually linked to the local governments of a township or village[15]. These types of business entity are restricted to the employment of local people and must adhere to stricter budget constraints than their state owned enterprise counterparts. Township and Village Enterprises are clearly also connected to local markets such as fishing and agriculture and are not subject to state planning policies for the implementation of public sector ventures. Thirdly Joint Ventures (JVs) are largely located in the five SEZs of the PRC where one party to the venture is a foreign investor. Where however domestic enterprises engage in a similar agreement, no such geographic restriction applies and as a result JVs tend to be scattered around the whole of the PRC. JVs enjoy the contractual freedom of being able ensure that they may hire and fire whomsoever they please within their constituent workforces and are therefore awarded far more flexibility than their state owned enterprise counterparts. Lastly, foreign owned firms are similar in this respect but they of course obtain far more advantageous tax advantages than any of the other three types of entity. This therefore means that of all the types of corporate forms, the foreign owned firm is by far the least restrained[16]. This description of the status of the various separate entities throughout the PRC is, as stated above, essential for a full understanding of the labour law reforms. Part B will now explain reform in relation to the Labour Law of 1994. Part C will do the same for the Trade Union law of 2001 and Parts C and D will explain current Chinese policies on Occupational Health and Safety and social security respectively. BThe Labour Law of 1994[17] The Labour law of China was passed by the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress in 1994 and became effective on 1 January 1995 and was in fact the first substantive legal source for labour relations in the history of the PRC. The statute consists of a series of principles that are derived from China’s administrative regulations and, as will be seen, represents a clear desire of the PRC Government to create a system of labour and industrial relations that is far more in keeping with the international community’s standards. Interestingly, there exists a clear attempt to combine the two concepts of traditional command economy with the Western market economy ethos. This balancing act may seem to be a conceptually awkward marriage. Scope of the Law Article 4 of the Labour Law firmly states: â€Å"The employing units shall establish and perfect rules and regulations in accordance with the law so as to ensure that labourers enjoy the right to work and fulfil labour obligations.† The Labour Law of 1994 is applicable to all business entities, whether nationally or internationally owned and governs employment across the skills spectrum. The clear aim to remove distinctions in labour rights between the various skills types and corporate entities is a positive effort to create one high standard of rights for workers in China. A further aspect of the Labour Law is contract employment is given a great deal of attention within Chapter 3 of the Law whereby it has become necessary for all employment to be protected in accordance with a contract. Article 16 states: â€Å"A labour contract is the agreement reached between a labourer and an employing unit for the establishment of the labour relationship and the definition of the rights, interests and obligations of each party. A labour contract shall be concluded where a labour relationship is to be established.† Prior to the economic reforms that were brought on by unrest and global pressure, the PRC Government was solely responsible for the allocation of labour. Instead, the Labour law follows 1986 regulations[18] whereby the standard contract of employment is described. By 1995, the Ministry of Labour had stated that this contract employment system was already in operation among some 85% of the state workforce[19]. A further internationally respected issue of the Labour law is direct address to anti-discrimination. Article 12 states: â€Å"Labourers shall not be discriminated against in employment, regardless of their ethnic community, race, sex, or religious belief.† This is followed by Article 13 which provides that: â€Å"Females shall enjoy equal rights as males in employment. It shall not be allowed, in the recruitment of staff and workers, to use sex as a pretext for excluding females form employment or to raise recruitment standards for the females, except for the types of work or posts that are not suitable for females as stipulated by the State.† The issue of gender equality does in reality reflect the PRC’s existing policies of equality that are not unusual for a communist state. In addition to the Labour Law, the PRC also produced the Law on the Protection of Women’s Rights and Interests in 1992[20] and is in keeping with the international campaign of the United Nations Development Fund for Women[21] . The law also consists of mandatory periods of rest, restrictions to overtime and overtime pay. In relation to factories that are set up within the Special Economic Zones (SEZs) it is surprising to note that these mostly foreign owned companies are the worst culprits for worker exploitation. The reason for this is that the bulk of those employed are from the rural areas and tend to be on a temporary basis, which is associated with the fluctuating demands for labour in privately owned firms. This is by contrast to the state owned businesses that promote longevity of working contract as a legacy of the communist era. The Labour Law stipulates in Article 36 that workers are to be engaged for no more than 8 hours per day and that the working week is no to exceed 44 hours. In addition, Article 38 calls for the right to have at least one day off per week. It is also interesting to learn that only three months after the coming into effect of the Labour Law, one State Council reduced the mini mum standards of working hours within the Labour Law to a maximum of 8 hours per day for five days per week. The Labour Law also provides for criteria for the calculation of a minimum wage within Article 48, which specifies that: â€Å"The determination and readjustment of the standards on minimum wages shall be made with reference to the following factors in a comprehensive manner: the lowest living expenses of labourers themselves and the average family members they support; (2) the average wage level of the society as a whole; (3) labour productivity; the situation of employment; and the different levels of economic development between regions.† As stipulated above, Article 48 also provides for the reporting of wages to the State Council which means that the Central Government has the power to supervise wages across the nation. This is only a slightly more invasive policy than that of Western Civilisations that specify a minimum wage but is arguably superior given that the wording of Article 48 provides for relative considerations such as geographic cost of living and worker commitments in order to determine wage levels. This therefore means that deemed income that is sufficient for comfortable living is more realistically achievable for Chinese workers than many low income earners in the West. This also provides for the availability of a large amount of data concerning minimum wage levels across the PRC and there is a sizeable difference between the South Coast SEZ provinces by comparison to the Northern regions. This will be discussed further in Chapter 2. A new kind of relationship between the worker and the state The Labour Law has cleverly converted administrative sanctions into liability for breach of contract, thereby maintaining a sense of obligation for workers without the stigmatising concept of the over-lord State. An example of this can be seen in Article 25 which stipulates situations that would permit the revocation of the contract of employment: â€Å"The employing unit may revoke the labour contract with a labourer in any of the following circumstances: to be proved not up to the requirements for recruitment during the probation period; to seriously violate labour disciplines or the rules and regulations of the employing units; to cause great losses to the employing unit due to serious dereliction of duty or engagement in malpractice for selfish ends; and to be investigated for criminal responsibilities in accordance with the law.† Another example is the right to sue workers for damages in the event that they walk away from the job[22]. As regards the obligations and duties of the employer to the employees, the Labour Law deals with Legal Responsibility[23] of the employer exclusively in such areas as excessive overtime and breaches of occupational safety but these will be dealt with further in part D. This incentive of shifting the premise for disciplinary violation as a contractual breach is also in keeping with the PRC’s efforts to award legal personality to businesses, regardless of whether they are state or privately owned. Indeed, as far as state enterprises are concerned, there will be a marked change in its relationship towards its workers and the contractual format of establishing such a relationship will be the basis for this change. In addition it is clear that the Chinese Labour Law was written to combat the inevitable onslaught of problems of abuse of uneven bargain positions that are common in the West. Indeed, with the introduction of a market dependent labour force it is clear that Western style abuses would arise and that therefore, workers would require to be entitled to the internationally recognised right to privately instigate litigation. This does however contrast with continued State control over the process of employment termination and this reflects the ongoing strength of pre-reform ethics concerning security of employment. This therefore means that lay-offs are statutorily regulated, as is illustrated in Article 27 which stipulates a requirement to consult trade unions: â€Å"During the period of statutory consolidation when the employing unit comes to the brink of bankruptcy or runs deep into difficulties in production and management, and if reduction of its personnel becomes really necessary, the unit may make such reduction after it has explained the situation to the trade union or all of its staff and workers 30 days in advance, solicited opinions from them and reported to the labour administrative department.† The result of this law is that termination for employment as a means of increasing productivity is prohibited. The main reason for this is that communist manufacturing infrastructures create more than a mere job for labourers but also provide workers with an array of fringe benefits that overshadow those of Western counterparts. These benefits traditionally include housing and free medical care with the result that a loss of work often means a loss of home and health! Layoffs therefore carry serious implications for political upheaval and are to be avoided at all costs and an employment culture of relocation, retraining and early retirement is unlikely to arise in the foreseeable future[24]. This does contrast with pressures from both the World Bank and the World Trade Organisation of which China has now been a member since 11 December 2002[25] but in general it would be prudent for these global organisations to be sensitive to the impact of economic restructuring on a workforce that is dependent on the full-life-package derived through their employers. It does seem that the influence of FDI into China has led to reforms that result in the workforce becoming a mere producer of manufactured goods as opposed to a fully rounded human being with social needs. C.The revised Trade Union Laws of 2001[26] Following the economic reforms that have caused China to become globally open to FDI, the resulting reforms of labour laws and trends in labour activity have resulted in a new role for trade unions as safeguards of worker’s interests during the difficult period of reform that would give rise to dissatisfaction from the workforce. This is stipulated in the November 2001 report of the International Confederation of Trade Unions[27]. Interestingly this report regards the revised Trade Union laws of 2001 as representing only a minimal departure from the 1992 version. This earlier version had been heavily criticised by the International Labour Organisation’s Committee on Freedom of Association which condemned the 1992 law as a: â€Å"serious constraint on the rights of unions to establish their own constitutions, organize their activities and formulate programs.[28]† However, the following substantive analysis will reveal that Trade Unions have been awarded substantial powers in their role as organisations that are established to represent the welfare of the labour force but also maintain a central system of regulating these Trade Unions. As stated above, the original 1992 Trade Union Law was revised in 2001 in order to create a more comprehensive response to the continuing market foundation of the Chinese economy[29]. The role of the Trade Union is defined in the basic functions under Articles 2 and 6 of the Trade Union Law of 2002. Article 2 states that: â€Å"Trade unions are mass organizations of the working class formed by the workers and staff members on a voluntary basis. The All-China Federation of Trade Unions and all the trade union organizations under it represent the interests of the workers and staff members and safeguard the legitimate rights and interests of the workers and staff members according to law.† In addition, Article 6 states that the basic function of the Trade Union is the safeguarding of the rights and interests of workers. Further to this, Trade Unions are to coordinate labour relations and arrange for members to partake of democratic decision making and remain in close relation with workers as their representatives to employers. Before China’s economic reforms, Trade Unions were chiefly involved in the fringe benefits of workers such as education and welfare. This was based on the premise that worker unrest and industrial action were unique to capitalist regimes although the truth of this matter is debatable. It is however true that the profound change to relationships between the worker and the employer are significantly different to justify an alteration of the role of the Trade Union. One of the main differences is the realisation that workers can no longer be automatically enrolled into Trade Union Membership. According to Union Chairman and Politburo member Wie Jianxing[30] only 5% of workers in the private sector were actually Union members. This was by comparison to a mere 3.4% in township enterprises. Incentives to increase Union membership are therefore present in the 2001 Union Laws. Article 10 encourages increases in Union branches and recruitment drives by the more superior branches also form part of the Union policy of increased membership under Article 11. In addition, Article 43 and Chapter VI have been introduced to protect the interests of maintaining Union property and income. Clearly this issue could not have arisen under the pre-economic reform era of Chinese communism. This initial analysis of laws that are geared towards the protection of the Union does motivate us to question whether this has become a priority that exceeds the interests of workers. Clearly the path of the Chinese Government is to ensure that Trade Unions should work hard to remain at the forefront in order to continue to provide support to workers. This is especially important during a time in which Chinese workers are arguably more vulnerable in a commercial environment where traditional guarantees of life-time work and fringe benefits are becoming ever more unstable. In addition to the above changes, Article 20 stipulates increased power for Trade Unions in collective bargaining and in Article 21 a right has been created whereby the Union may interfere in disciplinary proceedings and unfair dismissals. In the case of workers taking their employer to court, the Trade Union is obliged to assist. Equally significant is the power for Unions to assist in strikes and work to rule action. Clearly the role here is for the Trade Union to act as the voice of the labour force and a theme of the collective, communist labour force versus the potentially corrupt, capitalist employer screams out through the provisions of the 2001 Law. Occupational Health and Safety are dealt with in relation to Trade Unions in Articles 23 to 26. Here Trade Unions have heightened powers in relation this matter which will be dealt with in greater detail under part C below. As regards the relationship between Occupational Health and Safety and Trade Unions, the latter are obliged to conduct investigations into accidents where there have been infringements of health and safety. Trade Unions also have the power under Articles 33 and 34 of the 2001 law to assist in the process of creating new labour laws, further health and safety regulations and policies relating to social security. Consultation rights are also enjoyed by Trade Unions under Articles 37 to 39 of the new 2001 law in relation to these self same issues of pay, health and safety, social security and the democratic election of ‘worker directors.’ By comparison to the old law relating to the power of Trade Unions it is clear that their increase in power is in response to exposure of China to the international community. It is therefore more of a protective mechanism in the face of a more mobile, market influenced labour force as opposed to any international Trade Union movement. In addition, the reforms ought not to be mistaken for a step in the direction of democracy. This is blatantly illustrated in Article 4 which announces a clear adherence to the Communist state: â€Å"Trade unions shall observe and safeguard the Constitution, take it as the fundamental criterion for their activities, take economic development as the central task, uphold the socialist

Socialist Opposition to Genetic Engineering :: Argumentative Persuasive Crops Essays

Socialist Opposition to Genetic Engineering A debate is ragging over the advancements being made in genetic engineering. Scientist discovered that genes are the map of every aspect of a living organism, this has furthermore led to the prospect of altering this coding. By modifying one’s genes parents will one day be able to pick the color of their unborn child’s eyes and farmers will have the ability to develop plants that will produce bigger and healthier harvest. With the growing anticipation that some feel towards genetically modified crops others question it effects on the surrounding environments. Often pesticides are more heavily relied on for genetically modified crops and some cases have found pollination decreased in areas dominated by GM plants. Since there are so many aspects of genetic modification that have yet to be explored, much more research is required before distributing GM seeds internationally, but from the information already available the sides have begun to divide. Published in Socialism Today, the monthly journal of the Socialist Party, â€Å"Manipulating life: genetically engineered crops† is an article written by Bill Hopwood. The piece is created for an audience of Socialist party members to express their opposition against the dominance of government, big business, and support of efforts to meet the needs of society as a whole. From the Socialist Party USA web site it is stated that: â€Å"We support agricultural worker cooperatives, and oppose large corporate factory farms that lower food quality, cause profound damage to the environment, push farmers off the land, cruelly treat animals, and wreck small town culture.† All Socialist efforts are focused around the ideals that workers and consumers are the ultimate controller over production. To convey the Socialist position on genetically engineered crops, evidential fallacy is heavily used along with the support of ethos appeals, pathos and logos. The article’s ma in objective is stated by Mr. Hopwood proposing that big business will gain too much power from genetic engineering: â€Å"The growing international opposition to genetically engineered crops raises the important issue – who runs society and to what end?† The introduction to the article and the following six paragraphs are not composed of opinions or viewpoints. The general facts and methods of genetic engineering are described, and the companies behind the research are introduced. Loaded words are used in this part of the article but are not very common.

The Bear Minimum

Per your request, our group conducted research to determine whether costs or potential costs of the provisions of Big Bear Power’s lease of Goliath Co’s combustion turbine should be included in its minimum lease payments. We have provided a summary of the facts, our conclusion, the basis for our conclusion, and an analysis of possible alternatives to our conclusion as requested. Summary of the Facts Big Bear Power (the Company), a public utility company, is leasing a combustion turbine from Goliath Co. for a 10-year, non-cancelable term. The lease agreement was signed on December 15, 2004, and the company’s right to use the turbine starts on January 1, 2005. Big Bear Power has been financially strong for a number of years, has positive cash flow, and is in accordance with all of its debt covenants. The lease agreement contains three provisions, each of which has associated costs that may potentially need to be included in the calculation of minimum lease payments. The issue at hand is determining whether the costs in these provisions should, in fact, be included in minimum lease payments Conclusion Provision 1 Big Bear Power should not include the $500,000 negotiation fee in its minimum lease payments because, by definition, it is not an obligatory payment to be made toward the asset. On the other hand, the Company should include the $1 million legal fee in minimum lease payments since it is considered an initial direct cost made in connection with the leased property. Provision 2 The lease agreement includes a provision requiring a penalty payment if Big Bear’s bank declares it in default under its primary credit arrangement. This potential cost should be included in calculating minimum lease payments since a lack of predetermined criteria exists to determine default. Provision 3 The lease agreement stipulates Big Bear’s annual lease amount to be increased by the percentage increase in the Consumer Price Index (CPI). Because the lease payments depend on the index, it must be included in the calculation of the minimum lease payment at the inception of the lease agreement. Basis for Conclusion Provision 1 In the Financial Accounting Standards Board’s (FASB) Accounting Standards Codification (ASC) 840-10-25-5, minimum lease payments are â€Å"the payments that the lessee is obligated to make or can be required to make in connection with the leased property,† excluding contingent rentals, any guarantees of the lessor’s debt, and executory costs. Although negotiating fees incurred by Big Bear Power are not executory costs, the fees toward its external legal counsel are considered non-obligatory in nature and should be expensed. In contrast, legal fees paid by Big Bear Power on behalf of Goliath Co. an be categorized as initial direct costs under Statement of Financial Accounting Standards (SFAS) 91. Being defined as such, they can be included in the general description of payments they are obligated to make in connection with the lease agreement. Provision 2 Big Bear Power is subject to default if there is a â€Å"material adverse change† in its financial cond ition. FASB ASC 840-10-25-14 provides guidance for default covenants relating to nonperformance and provides four conditions as follows: a. The default covenant provision is customary in leasing arrangements. b. The occurrence of the event of default is objectively determinable. c. Predefined criteria, related solely to the lessee and its operations, has been established for the determination of the event of default. d. It is reasonable to assume, based on the facts and circumstances that exist at lease inception, that the event of default will not occur. In applying this condition, it is expected that entities would consider recent trends in the lessee's operations. The Codification states that if the lease agreement fails to meet all of these conditions, Big Bear Power must include the penalty in its minimum lease payments. As already stated in the information provided, condition (a) is met. Upon further analysis, condition (b) and (d) are also met—Big Bear’s bank is an objective third-party that will determine an occurrence of default, and Big Bear Power is financially strong with remote likelihood of default. While the facts imply that â€Å"material adverse change† is a predefined criterion to determine default, it is our contention that the lack of definition in the documents is sufficient evidence to not fulfill the third condition. Furthermore, the absence of a definition implies a lack of objectivity within the criteria; the phrase â€Å"material adverse change† provides no verifiable benchmark to which Big Bear Power can be examined through its operations, as mandated by the condition. Consequently, Big Bear Power should add the maximum amount of the penalty to the minimum lease payments. Provision 3 According to FASB ASC 840-10-25-4, the portion of lease payments that depends on an index, such as the Consumer Price Index(CPI), should be included in calculating minimum lease payments at lease inception. Big Bear’s lease payments are contingent on increases in the CPI, therefore it must follow this rule. The lease agreement states that Big Bear will pay $1 million per year, and the lease amount will change at each year-end by the increase in the index rate. Only the most recent CPI increase at inception will be included in minimum lease payments. Future increases in the index will not be included as they are considered a contingent rental. Analysis of Alternatives Provision 1 Alternative A debate of Provision 1 suggests that Big Bear Power should not include the $1 million in legal fees toward minimum lease payments. Initial direct costs may be considered transactions separate from the lease itself with benefits being realized at the time of exchange (International Accounting Standards Board [IASB], 2009). Their recognition as assets would be erroneous under this premise, and instead would require an immediate expense to the income statement. Still, it remains our team’s recommendation that the $1 million legal fees be treated as described, in accordance with the FASB’s logic behind fees closely-tied to a lease agreement. Provision 2 Alternative It can be contended that the required penalty payment under a declaration of default should not be included in the minimum lease payments. As stated, FASB ASC 840-10-25-14 provides four conditions, which, if all fulfilled, would not include the penalty in minimum lease payments. Based on those facts provided, and regardless of the definition behind â€Å"material adverse change†, it is arguable that a sufficient criterion exists to determine default. Furthermore, the criterion is established by a third-party with no relation to Goliath Company. This would fulfill condition (c). Provision 3 Alternative Alternative treatment of this provision would adjust minimum lease payments annually after 2005 for the annual increase in the Consumer Price Index. For example, if the lease payment in 2005 is $1 million and the most recent CPI increases by 4%, the lease payment would increase to $1,040,000 in 2006, and $1,081,600 in 2007. The reasoning for this approach is to more accurately measure the lease agreement for financial reporting. However, this method is not in agreement with FASB ASC 840-10-25-4, which states a lease dependent on an index should only include the index existing at lease inception when calculating minimum lease payments. References Financial Accounting Standards Board. (n. d. ). Accounting standards codification. Norwalk, CT: Financial Accounting Standards Board. Retrieved February 8, 2010. International Accounting Standards Board. (2009). IASB staff paper: leases – initial direct costs. London, United Kingdom: International Accounting Standards Board. Retrieved February 8, 2010. The Bear Minimum Per your request, our group conducted research to determine whether costs or potential costs of the provisions of Big Bear Power’s lease of Goliath Co’s combustion turbine should be included in its minimum lease payments. We have provided a summary of the facts, our conclusion, the basis for our conclusion, and an analysis of possible alternatives to our conclusion as requested. Summary of the Facts Big Bear Power (the Company), a public utility company, is leasing a combustion turbine from Goliath Co. for a 10-year, non-cancelable term. The lease agreement was signed on December 15, 2004, and the company’s right to use the turbine starts on January 1, 2005. Big Bear Power has been financially strong for a number of years, has positive cash flow, and is in accordance with all of its debt covenants. The lease agreement contains three provisions, each of which has associated costs that may potentially need to be included in the calculation of minimum lease payments. The issue at hand is determining whether the costs in these provisions should, in fact, be included in minimum lease payments Conclusion Provision 1 Big Bear Power should not include the $500,000 negotiation fee in its minimum lease payments because, by definition, it is not an obligatory payment to be made toward the asset. On the other hand, the Company should include the $1 million legal fee in minimum lease payments since it is considered an initial direct cost made in connection with the leased property. Provision 2 The lease agreement includes a provision requiring a penalty payment if Big Bear’s bank declares it in default under its primary credit arrangement. This potential cost should be included in calculating minimum lease payments since a lack of predetermined criteria exists to determine default. Provision 3 The lease agreement stipulates Big Bear’s annual lease amount to be increased by the percentage increase in the Consumer Price Index (CPI). Because the lease payments depend on the index, it must be included in the calculation of the minimum lease payment at the inception of the lease agreement. Basis for Conclusion Provision 1 In the Financial Accounting Standards Board’s (FASB) Accounting Standards Codification (ASC) 840-10-25-5, minimum lease payments are â€Å"the payments that the lessee is obligated to make or can be required to make in connection with the leased property,† excluding contingent rentals, any guarantees of the lessor’s debt, and executory costs. Although negotiating fees incurred by Big Bear Power are not executory costs, the fees toward its external legal counsel are considered non-obligatory in nature and should be expensed. In contrast, legal fees paid by Big Bear Power on behalf of Goliath Co. an be categorized as initial direct costs under Statement of Financial Accounting Standards (SFAS) 91. Being defined as such, they can be included in the general description of payments they are obligated to make in connection with the lease agreement. Provision 2 Big Bear Power is subject to default if there is a â€Å"material adverse change† in its financial cond ition. FASB ASC 840-10-25-14 provides guidance for default covenants relating to nonperformance and provides four conditions as follows: a. The default covenant provision is customary in leasing arrangements. b. The occurrence of the event of default is objectively determinable. c. Predefined criteria, related solely to the lessee and its operations, has been established for the determination of the event of default. d. It is reasonable to assume, based on the facts and circumstances that exist at lease inception, that the event of default will not occur. In applying this condition, it is expected that entities would consider recent trends in the lessee's operations. The Codification states that if the lease agreement fails to meet all of these conditions, Big Bear Power must include the penalty in its minimum lease payments. As already stated in the information provided, condition (a) is met. Upon further analysis, condition (b) and (d) are also met—Big Bear’s bank is an objective third-party that will determine an occurrence of default, and Big Bear Power is financially strong with remote likelihood of default. While the facts imply that â€Å"material adverse change† is a predefined criterion to determine default, it is our contention that the lack of definition in the documents is sufficient evidence to not fulfill the third condition. Furthermore, the absence of a definition implies a lack of objectivity within the criteria; the phrase â€Å"material adverse change† provides no verifiable benchmark to which Big Bear Power can be examined through its operations, as mandated by the condition. Consequently, Big Bear Power should add the maximum amount of the penalty to the minimum lease payments. Provision 3 According to FASB ASC 840-10-25-4, the portion of lease payments that depends on an index, such as the Consumer Price Index(CPI), should be included in calculating minimum lease payments at lease inception. Big Bear’s lease payments are contingent on increases in the CPI, therefore it must follow this rule. The lease agreement states that Big Bear will pay $1 million per year, and the lease amount will change at each year-end by the increase in the index rate. Only the most recent CPI increase at inception will be included in minimum lease payments. Future increases in the index will not be included as they are considered a contingent rental. Analysis of Alternatives Provision 1 Alternative A debate of Provision 1 suggests that Big Bear Power should not include the $1 million in legal fees toward minimum lease payments. Initial direct costs may be considered transactions separate from the lease itself with benefits being realized at the time of exchange (International Accounting Standards Board [IASB], 2009). Their recognition as assets would be erroneous under this premise, and instead would require an immediate expense to the income statement. Still, it remains our team’s recommendation that the $1 million legal fees be treated as described, in accordance with the FASB’s logic behind fees closely-tied to a lease agreement. Provision 2 Alternative It can be contended that the required penalty payment under a declaration of default should not be included in the minimum lease payments. As stated, FASB ASC 840-10-25-14 provides four conditions, which, if all fulfilled, would not include the penalty in minimum lease payments. Based on those facts provided, and regardless of the definition behind â€Å"material adverse change†, it is arguable that a sufficient criterion exists to determine default. Furthermore, the criterion is established by a third-party with no relation to Goliath Company. This would fulfill condition (c). Provision 3 Alternative Alternative treatment of this provision would adjust minimum lease payments annually after 2005 for the annual increase in the Consumer Price Index. For example, if the lease payment in 2005 is $1 million and the most recent CPI increases by 4%, the lease payment would increase to $1,040,000 in 2006, and $1,081,600 in 2007. The reasoning for this approach is to more accurately measure the lease agreement for financial reporting. However, this method is not in agreement with FASB ASC 840-10-25-4, which states a lease dependent on an index should only include the index existing at lease inception when calculating minimum lease payments. References Financial Accounting Standards Board. (n. d. ). Accounting standards codification. Norwalk, CT: Financial Accounting Standards Board. Retrieved February 8, 2010. International Accounting Standards Board. (2009). IASB staff paper: leases – initial direct costs. London, United Kingdom: International Accounting Standards Board. Retrieved February 8, 2010.

Advances in Modern Irrigation Systems Essay

ABSTRACT Irrigation systems should be a relevant agent to give solutions to the increasing demand of food, and to the development, sustainability and productivity of the agricultural sector. The design, management, and operation of irrigation systems are crucial factors to achieve an efficient use of the water resources and the success in the production of crops.The aim of this paper is to analyze the advances made in irrigation systems as well as identify the principal criteria and processes that allow improving the design and management of the irrigation systems,based on the basic concept that they facilitate to develop agriculture more efficiently and sustainable. The advances and management of irrigation systems at farm level is a factor of the first importance for the rational use of water, economic development of the agriculture and its environmental sustainability. Key words: Irrigation, Design, Water Management, Operation Systems INTRODUCTION Water required by crops is supplied by nature in theform of precipitation, but when it becomes scarce or its distribution does not coincide with demand peaks, it is then necessary to supply it artificially, by irrigation. Several irrigation methods are available, and the selection of one depends on factors such as water availability, crop, soil characteristics, land topography, and associated cost. In the near future, irrigated agriculture will need to produce two-thirds of the increase in food products required by a larger population (English et al., 2002). The growing dependence on irrigated agriculture coincides with an accelerated competition for water and increased awareness of unintended negative consequences of poor design and management (Cai et al., 2003) Optimum management of available water resources at farm level is needed because of increasing demands, limited resources, water table variation in space and time, and soil contamination (Kumar and Singh, 2003). Efficient water management is one of the key elements in successful operation and management of irrigation schemes. Irrigation technology has made significant advances in recent years. Criteria and procedures have been developed to improve and rationalize practices to apply water, through soil leveling, irrigation system design, discharge regulations, adduction structures, and control equipment. However, in many regions these advances are not yet available at the farm stage. Irrigation systems are selected, designed and operated to supply the irrigation requirements of each crop on the farm while controlling deep percolation, runoff, evaporation, and operational losses, to establish a sustainable production process. Playà ¡n and Mateos (2006) mentioned that modernized irrigation systems at farm level implies selecting the appropriate irrigation system and strategy according to the water availability, the characteristics of climate, soil and crop, the economic and social circumstance s, and the constraints of the distribution system. Efficient irrigation equipment generally comes in two broad categories—drip and sprinkler irrigation. Both of these areas have several sub-types of equipment in them. Within drip irrigation are surface drip equipment, subsurface drip equipment and micro sprays/sprinklers. This category of drip irrigation and particularly subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) is one of the most exciting and newest technologies in irrigation. Drip irrigation has attracted tremendous interest by academics, who measure the performance of drip systems and promote drip as a water savings technology. Sprinkler equipment can also be broken down into several subcategories including wheel lines, solid set and hand move pipe, traveling guns, and mechanical move irrigation (MMI) systems, which include center pivots and linear move equipment. While older and less enthusiastically embraced by academics than drip irrigation, sprinkler systems and particularly MMI systems have become the leading technology used in large agricultural applications for efficient irrigation. With the advent of Low Energy Precision Application (LEPA) configurations in the 1980’s, MMI systems achieve irrigation efficiencies rivaling subsurface drip. Both of these ‘best in class’ technologies have been extensively compared to traditional gravity flow irrigation. Both systems can demonstrate significantly better overall performance than traditional irrigation methods. Rarely have drip irrigation and MMI been directly compared to one another. The balance of this paper will draw comparisons between these two types of irrigation systems, and explore how appropriate each technology is for various types of farming operations. IRRIGATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE Up to this point, our discussion on advances in irrigation has focused on water savings. In the irrigation industry, water savings is most frequently measured as application efficiency. Application efficiency is the fraction of water stored in the soil and available for use by the crop divided by the total water applied. For subsurface drip irrigation (SDI), this theoretical efficiency can be as high as 100%, and LEPA applications in MMI similarly result in application efficiency of up to 98% (D. Rogers, 2012). While application efficiency is a good starting point in understanding irrigation performance, efficiency measurements under ideal conditions on a test plot hardly tell the whole story about irrigation performance. In general, we can analyze irrigation performance in five categories as shown below WATER EFFICIENCY Researchers generally give the edge to subsurface drip irrigation SDI when they evaluate water efficiency. According to the IrrigationAssociation, subsurfacedrip irrigation (SDI) installations, if properly managed, can achieve 95% water efficiency (James Hardie, 2011). This high level of water efficiency isapproximately the same as what a LEPA center pivot or linear system achieves, at 90-95%, and definitely better than the 75-85% efficiency of center pivot with the obsolete water application method of impact sprinklers mounted to the top of the MMI system’s pipe. Gravity flow installations are typically around 40%-50% efficient. For the purpose of a farmer’s consideration, LEPA and SDI systems can be thought of as having equivalent potential efficiency. Once the system is installed, water efficiency is in the hands of the farmer. While data on this topic is difficult to find, it seems that farmers habitually over-apply water to their fields with all types of irrigation equipment including gravity flow. Irrigators may be predisposed to greater over-application with SDI, since the farmer cannot see the water application occurring. Both systems will benefit from more sophisticated information on evapotranspiration and plant health to allow more precise application of water and reduce over-application. SDI systems typically require periodic cleaning and flushing to prevent root ingression and plugging. Such flushing is not a requirement with MMI equipment. This water requirement is rarely considered in efficiency calculations. CROP YIELD DRIVER In most cases, the contribution that an irrigation system can make to reaching optimal crop yields is by delivering water to plants when they need it and by applying water uniformly over the area of the field. However, when the available water supply is insufficient to fully meet the water needs of a crop, then the highest crop yields will be achieved by the irrigation system with the highest application efficiency. Uniform water application by MMI systems is determined by sprinkler package design and by the rate at which the equipment moves across the field. Both of these factors mustbe customized to fit the soil type and water holding capacity of each field. MMI experts today have a very good understanding of the relationship between soil type, water holding capacity, equipment speed, and sprinkler package design, and they have even developed several computer programs to generate highly uniform patterns of water distribution for low pressure and LEPA systems. Changes in the elevation of terrain can beaccommodated by the use of pressure regulators. Uniformity of MMI systems is fairly constant over time. Variations among individual nozzles is significantly reduced by the movement of the equipment and by the overlap between the wetted diameters of soil irrigated by each individual sprinkler head. Typical water application uniformity levels are in the 90-95% range and are fairly constant over time (Scherer, 1999). In applications with high levels of abrasives present in the water, sprinkler packages must be replaced and redesigned every few years to maintain watering uniformity. Drip systems can also be designed to have high levels of uniformity. A typical design targets uniformity levels in the 85% range. SDI design is not as standardized as MMI system design is, and consequently the water application of any drip system is highly dependent on the skill and knowledge the technician who designed it. Unlike MMI systems, drip system uniformity c an change substantially over time if proper maintenance is not performed to the drip installation. This is particularly difficult for subsurface systems, whose emitters are more likely to suck in soil which cannot then be easily removed by hand since the emitters are buried underground. According to a South African study published in 2001, field examinations of drip systems show that water application uniformity deteriorates significantly over time.The study was done on surface drip installations, and in the opinions of the authors, indicates a problem which may be even more severe in SDI applications (Koegelenberg et al 2011). System availability and controllability is generally good with both MMI and SDI systems, since both offer the ability to irrigate at least once every 24 hours. The exception to this can be with towable pivots, where use of the equipment on multiple fields may limit its availability. Both systems support the use of sophisticated automatic controls and remote control and monitoring. Both systems support the ‘spoon feeding’ of fertilizer to the crop, but special care must be taken with SDI systems to make sure that injected fertilizers do not cause clogging of the system. For SDI systems, soil salinization is also a significant problem in areas where salts are present in irrigation water. As salts build up in soil, crop yields decrease. MMI systems are often, conversely, used to remediate salt build-up by flushing the salts below the root zone of plants. Based on a review of available literature, itappears that in non-water limited applications, SDI and MMI systems produce equivalent yields, although the center pivot will use slightly more water in those comparisons due to losses fromsurface evaporation. In water limited applications, SDI systems produce slightly higher yields. Over time, SDI system maintenance is of great importance. A lapse in system maintenance can result in a significant and permanent degradation of watering uniformity, which in turn causes permanently higher water consumption and lower crop yields. COST DRIVERS A lot of conflicting information exists concerning the costs of both SDI and MMI systems. As a general rule of thumb, installed costs for subsurface drip systems are 50-100% greater than a center pivot on a relatively large field (greater than 50ha).(O’Brien et al 1998). Cost depends on a number of factors including: availability of proper power, filtration type used in the drip system, the value of installation labor, towable vs. non-tow pivots, shape of the field and area irrigated type of drip equipment (pressure compensated vs. non-pressure compensated) and the use of linear move equipment, or corner arm extensions on a center pivot. Also important to the long-term cost is the expected life. Center pivots have an average life expectancy of 25 years with minimal maintenance expenses, typically less than 1% per year of the original price. In a few installations where the source water is corrosive to galvanize steel, it is important for the buyer to move to corrosion resistan t products such as aluminum, stainless steel, or polyethylene lined systems. Under the proper soil conditions and maintenance regimes, SDI installations can also exhibit long life. Some research installations have surpassed 20 years of usage with still functioning systems. Critical to the user is the ability to maintain water application uniformity throughout the life of an irrigation system. In most commercial installations, drip systems performance degrades with time due to plugging, root intrusion, and pest damage. Diagnosis and repair of SDI system problems can be expensive and challenging to perform. Typical maintenance costs range from 3% to 10% per year of the original system cost. Another advantage of MMI technology is its portability. It is not uncommon for a center pivot to be moved several times during its expected service life. Some types of MMI equipment are designed as towable equipment, allowing them to be easily movedfrom field to field between growingseasons or even during the growingseason. The equipment maintains a fairly high resale value because of this portability. SDI systems, with the exception of some filtration and control elements, are generally not salvageable or resell able at all. In addition to maintenance and repair costs, the other significant system operating cost is energy used to pump water and field labor. Energy costs are related to the volume of water pumped and the pressure required. Research shows that these two costs are nearly equal for SDI and MMI systems. Center pivot and linear systems at research plots typically pump slightly more volume of water then SDI systems, but SDI pump outlet pressures are typically higher (3 bar vs. 1.5-2 bar). Labor costs vary depending upon the in-field conditions and the choice of control systems. One 1990 article shows pivots to require 3 hours per hectare, while drip requires 10 hours per hectare.(Kruse et al, 1990). Even in trouble-free installations of equal control sophistication, SDI seems to require more labor because of its regularly required maintenance cycle. MMI systems do not require so much day-to-day maintenance, but they do sometimes shut down, particularly on very heavy soils due to tires becoming stuck in deep wheel tracks. CROP SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONS Different crop specific characteristics favor one system type over another. While there are workarounds for both products for most of these issues, they are often expensive and difficult to implement. Drip systems or micro-irrigation are often preferred by growers when crop height may be an issue for mechanical systems as over cashew nut trees, or with planting patterns not conducive to above ground mobile irrigation equipment as with vineyards. Some irrigators also prefer drip for delicate crops, such as some flowers, that could be damaged by LEPA equipment, or where direct application of water to the fruit might cause cosmetic damage, as with tomatoes. Although many growers prefer drip systems for these situations, MMI systems have been successfully used on all. MMI systems are preferred where surface water application isrequired to germinate seed as with carrots and onions, particularly in sandy soils. MMI systems also have an advantage in applying foliar herbicides and pesticides, and can be used for crop coolingin temperature sensitive crops such as corn. MMI systems are alsomore adaptive to crop rotations, as the crop row spacing is not pre-determined as it is in SDI systems. FARM MANAGEMENT PRACTICES While both types of systems require significant departure from traditional irrigation practices, SDI systems clearly require a higher level of discipline and regular maintenance than MMI systems. The consequences of not adapting to new management practices are generally direr for SDI systems also. SDI farms must commit to the regular cleaning and flushing procedures described by the system designer and the equipment manufacturers. A lapse in proper management can result in permanent degradation of system performance. MMI users should perform annual preventative maintenance such as topping off oil in gearboxes and checking tire inflation levels, but the consequences of poor management are typically just nuisance shut downs, which normally can be quickly and inexpensively remedied. A special problem that faces owners of MMI equipment in some third world countries is theft, particularly theft of motors, controls and copper wire. To combat this problem, a number of adaptations have been made to reduce the risk of theft on the system. Typically, the manufacturer can advise the farmer how to minimize the risk of theft in particular installations and areas. MMI systems are less flexible when it comes to field configuration and water infrastructure. Farmland laid out in 2 hectare plots with canals serving the individual fields, for example, are difficult to adapt to MMI systems. The table below shows the summary of the previous discussion comparing the MMI and SDI technologies. Analysis of SDI and MMI System Performance| Water Efficiency * SDI has slightly higher efficiency than LEPA (95% vs. 90-95%) in research installation. * No known studies yet compare actual on-farm efficiency| Crop Yields * SDI performs better in research tests when water availability is the limiting factor, otherwise yields are equivalent between the two systems. * Uniformity of SDI systems appears to degrade over time, favoring MMI. * Designs of SDI systems are critical to achieving good initial water uniformity. * Where salinity is a problem, MMI systems have a clear edge.| Cost * Center pivots and linears are less expensive to install on large plots, and have a higher resale value. * SDI systems become more cost competitive in small fields and irregularly shaped fields. * MMI systems have long lives (25 years on average). SDI can have a life of 10-15 years if proper maintenance is performed. * Ongoing maintenance costs of SDI are 3-5 times higher than MMI. * Operating costs for energy are similar between the two technologies, but MMI systems typically require much less labor.| Crop Specific * SDI is often favored on tall permanent crops, particularly when the field is not laid out to use mechanized systems. * MMI systems are preferred in sandy soils where surface application is necessary for germination. * Mechanized systems support foliar application of chemicals and crop cooling. * Mechanized systems are preferred where there are frequent crop rotations.| Farm Management * SDI systems are less adaptive and forgiving to poor management practices. * Theft is an issue for mechanized systems in some third world markets. * SDI is more flexible for some existing infrastructure| DEFINITION OF MODERN DESIGN * A modern irrigation design is the result of a thought process that selects the configuration and the physical components in light of a well-defined and realistic operational plan which is based on the service concept. * Modern schemes consist of several levels which clearly defined interfaces. * Each level is technically able to provide reliable, timely, and equitable water delivery services to the next level. That is, each has the proper types, numbers, and configuration of gates, turnouts, measurement devices, communications systems and other means to control flow rates and water levels as desired. * Modern irrigation schemes are responsive to the needs of the end users. Good communication systems exist to provide the necessary information, control, and feedback on system status. * The hydraulic design is robust, in the sense that it will function well in spite of changing channel dimensions, siltation, and communication breakdowns. Automatic devices are used where appropriate to stabilize water levels in unsteady flow conditions. ADVANCES MADE IN IRRIGATION MICRO IRRIGATION During the last three decades, micro irrigation systems made major advances in technology development and the uptake of the technology increased from 3 Mha in 2000 to more than 6 Mha in 2006. Micro-irrigation is an irrigation method that applies water slowly to the roots of plants, by depositing the water either on the soil surface or directly to the root zone, through a network of valves, pipes, tubing, and emitters (see Figure below). Fig. 1: Components of a micro-irrigation system EARLY HISTORY OF MICRO-IRRIGATION Drip irrigation was used in ancient times by filling buried clay pots with water and allowing the water to gradually seep into the soil. Modern drip irrigation began its development in Germany in 1860 when researchers began experimenting with sub irrigation using clay pipe to create combination irrigation and drainage systems. In 1913, E.B. House at Colorado State University succeeded in applying water to the root zone of plants without raising the water table. Perforated pipe was introduced in Germany in the 1920s and in 1934; O.E. Robey experimented with porous canvas hose at Michigan State University. With the advent of modern plastics during and after World War II, major improvements in drip irrigation became possible. Plastic micro tubing and various types of emitters began to be used in the greenhouses of Europe and the United States. A new technology of drip irrigation was then introduced in Israel by Simcha Blass and his son Yeshayahu. Instead of releasing water through tiny holes, blocked easily by tiny particles, water was released through larger and longer passage ways by using friction to slow the water flow rate inside a plastic emitter. The first experimental system of this type was established in 1959 in Israel by Blass, where he developed and patented the first practical surface drip irrigation emitter. The Micro-sprayer concept was developed in South Africa to contain the dust on mine heaps. From here much more advanced developments took place to use it as a method to apply water to mainly agricultural crops. ADVANTAGES OF MICRO-IRRIGATION The advantages of drip irrigation are as follows: * Sophisticated technology * Maximum production per mega litre of water * Increased crop yields and profits * Improved quality of production * Less fertilizer and weed control costs * Environmentally responsible, with reduced leaching and run-off * Labour saving * Application of small amounts of water more frequent DISADVANTAGES OF MICRO-IRRIGATION The disadvantages of micro-irrigation are as follows: * Expensive * Need managerial skills * Waste: The plastic tubing and â€Å"tapes† generally last 3-8 seasons before being replaced * Clogging * Plant performance: Studies indicate that many plants grow better when leaves are wetted as well CENTER-PIVOT IRRIGATION The biggest single change since the first irrigation symposium is the amount of land irrigated with center-pivot and linear-move irrigation machines. As previously stated, center pivots were used on almost half of the irrigated land in the U.S. in 2008 (USDA-NASS, 2012). Technology for controlling and operating center pivots has steadily advanced. Kranz et al. (2012) describe how operators can now communicate with irrigation machines by cell phone, satellite radio, and internet-based systems. New sensors are being developed to collect soil or crop information that can be used for managing irrigation. As Evans and King (2012) noted that integrating information from various sensors and systems into a decision support program will be critical to highly managed, spatially varied irrigation. Technology has allowed irrigators to precisely control irrigation. However, technology to precisely apply irrigation water is wasted if the water does not infiltrate into soil where it was applied. King and Bjorneberg (2012) characterize the kinetic energy applied to the soil from common center-pivot sprinklers and relate this energy to runoff and soil erosion to improve center-pivot sprinkler selection. Finally, Martin et al. (2012) describe the wide variety of sprinkler packages available for mechanical-move irrigation machines and how those sprinkler packages are selected. Above Left: A Field VISION control panel operates one of his pivots Above Right: A computer screen display showing the exact position of the irrigation pivot, along with how much water is being sprayed on the crop A Zimmatic Pivot Irrigation System An Irrigation Field Covered by a Center Pivot Irrigation System A Center Pivot Irrigation System in Action CONCLUSION The success or failure of any irrigation system depends to a large extent on careful selection, thorough planning, accurate design and effective management. One thing we can be certain of, the demands of irrigated agriculture will certainly not diminish, they will indeed increase almost exponentially. Advanced surface irrigation will still dominate as the primary irrigation method, but with the current trends, the area under micro-irrigation will continue to expand. Both subsurface drip and mechanical move irrigation systems have a legitimate place in agricultural water conservation plans for the future. Both systems offer significant potential water application reduction, as well as yield improvements over traditionally managed irrigation fields. In general, mechanized systems are most suitable for: broad area crops in large fields, new land development, and sandy soils. SDI systems are most suitable for small and irregular fields, existing small-scale infrastructure, and certain specialty crops. These innovative technologies require significant investment. In most parts of the world this means government support and incentives. Mexico and Brazil are two leading countries in providing effective incentives to farmers to invest in modern efficient agricultural irrigation. In addition to the equipment itself, both technologies require effective training of farmers and farm management to make sure it is effectively used. Poor management can easily offset most of the water saving and yield gains made possible by the equipment. Employing the modern technology available for water-efficient irrigation is clearly a key to over coming the global challenges of water scarcity. Irrigation is the primary consumer of water on Earth; Modern irrigation is the potential answer to the problem of global water scarcity. REFERENCES English, M.J., K.H. Solomon, and G.J. Hoffman. 2002.A paradigm shift in irrigation management. J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. 128:267-277. Evans, R. G. and B. A. King. 2012. Site-specific sprinkler irrigation in a water-limited future. Trans. ASABE 55(2): 493-504. Cai, X., D.C. McKinney, and M.W. 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Singh. 2003. Regional water management modeling for decision support in irrigated agriculture. J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. 129:432-439. Martin, D. L., W. R. Kranz, A. L. Thompson, and H. Liang. 2012. Selecting sprinkler packages for center pivots. Trans. ASABE 55(2): 513-523. O’Brien .E. 1998.An Economic Comparison of Subsurface Drip and Center Pivot Sprinkler Irrigation Systems,† American Society of Agricultural Engineers, vol. 14(4), (1998): 391-398. Playà ¡n, E., and L. Mateos. 2006. Modernization and optimization of irrigation systems to increase water productivity. Agric. Water Manage. 80:100-116. Rogers, D. 2012.LEPA Irrigation Management for Center Pivots. Irrigation Association Online; available from http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/library/ageng2/l907.pdf; Internet; accessed 15 October 2012 Scherer, 1999. Sprinkler Irrigation Systems (Ames, IA: Midwest Plan Service, Iowa State University, USDA-NASS. 2012. Farm and ranch irrigation survey. Washington, D.C.: USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service. Available at: www.agcensus.usda.gov. Accessed 11 October 2012